Such enterprises were, however, a consequence not only of formal institutions (the royal tribunals, municipalities or the viceroyalties, notaries, consulates, etc.), as is always said, but also of informal institutions and social networks in which family relations, kinship, clienteles, and reciprocity were crucial. Contrary to traditional stereotypes, Iberian societies were technically and administratively as well-endowed as any others in Europe for the expansion and the conquest of new territories. This chapter investigates Portuguese and Castilian overseas expansion by introducing some comparisons between the two.
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